I.  General theme: 16th and 17th centuries--age of change beginning in chaos.  Just about everything taken for granted in earlier times had changed, was changing, or was about to change.

II.  Christopher Columbus--his discoveries a major reason for change.

A.  Basic story: Genoese explorer who sailed for Spain, tried to found easier route to China/India--instead discovered New World.

B. Things like interchange of crops ultimately benefited Europe and America.  European technology, domestic animals also in some ways a benefit to New World.

C. But Columbus discovery meant disaster for native populations in America.  He and successors brought diseases like smallpox. Natives had no resistance and 80% died!

D. Columbus discovery also brought major changes to Europe

1.  Changed economy

a. Trade routes changed (from Mediterranean to Atlantic)--this meant economic growth for Spain, England, Netherlands, and France and ultimately also a shift in the cultural centers of Europe.  As Italy loses economic preeminence, it also loses cultural preeminence.  Artists, writers, musicians go where the money is!

b. Influx of gold and silver from New World meant rapid inflation and a drop of real wages.  Inflation a particular problem for working class people as their real wages go down and  the outlook for subsequent generations doesn't look good.  This leads to the kind of discontent that makes for revolution.

2.  Increasing social and political tension

a.  Bourgeoisie (merchants, bankers, traders) able to  take advantage of new economic conditions and make for themselves great fortunes, but they generally have no say in political decisions.  This makes them unhappy, since government decisions affect the bottom line.  Their discontent also might contribute to civil war or revolution.

b.  Nobles also unhappy as they are losing ground to the bourgeoisie and to the kings.  They are still wealthy and powerful, but not as wealthy or powerful.  This makes them discontent, and contributes to revolution.

c.  Columbus' discoveries also aggravated tension between countries, made war more likely. Why?  Fight for New World colonies--a very high stakes game!
 

3.  Religious tension

a. Until 1517, Europeans united by allegiance to Roman Catholic faith, but by end of 16th century, Europe divided among Lutherans, Calvinists, Anglicans, Anabaptists, Catholics, etc.  Conflicts going to be more intense because they will be religious wars as well.  This period often called "Age of Religious Wars."

A. Holy Roman Empire (not to be confused with Roman Empire of August, Nero, Constantine, etc.) was created by Otto the Great in 956. The empire included much of Italy, much of Eastern Europe, and most of the German speaking areas of Europe.  The emperors for a time had been successful and powerful, but, in time, they had become mere figureheads.  And the nobles liked it that way!

B.  Around 1500, a new dynasty of emperors (the Hapsburgs) became powerful.  They controlled Spain, Netherlands, Germany, much  of eastern Europe, and  a lot of colonies in the New World.  They had enough power to become true emperors, not just figureheads, and the nobles didn't like it.  Looking for an excuse to resist the growing power of the Hapsburgs, many nobles turned to Lutheranism.  This led to a round of religious wars within the HRE, wars settled by he Peace of Augsburg (1555).  This treaty allowed nobles to choose the religion of the people in their domains.

C.  Agreement breaks down in 1618 when the King of Bohemia dies.  Ferdinand (a Hapsburg, soon to be HR emperor, chosen to replace him.  He tries to force Bohemians to leave Protestant church for Catholic.  This makes people furious.  They throw his reps out a window (the Defenestration of Prague), and, although they are not hurt, an angry Ferdinand now gathers his resources to wipe out Protestantism in Bohemia.  The Bohemians under their leader Frederick hire mercenaries to protect them, but the mercenaries sell out, and Ferdinand gains the upper hand.  He then hires more mercenaries and starts trying to get rid of Protestantism throughout the HRE.

D.  All this leads to 30 years of bloody war.  France (although Catholic!) and Sweden aid Protestants, and the war drags on and on.  Finally settled by Peace of Westphalia--basically same terms as Peace of Augsburg!  France the "winner" of the war, emerging as the most powerful country in Europe.  The German people (both Protestant and Catholic) the losers.  The war left 1/3 of the German population dead and destroyed the German economy.