MESOPOTAMIA II

 In our last exciting episode, we had just begun to look at Mesopotamian civilization, like that of ancient Egypt, a civilization that endured for more than 2000 years.  How was it able to survive so long?  For most part, because it provided p.s., e.g. and e.f. to its members.  We had just begun to look at first phase of Mesopotamian civilization, Sumer.  Sumerian phase 3000-2000 B.C.--close to same time as O.K. Egypt.  Similar to O.K. in that this is the period during which foundations of Mesopotamian civilization laid, the basic ways in which this society provided P.S., etc.

 Last time, I described for you some of the things Sumerians developed in helping provide P.S. (Math and Engineering skills to build walls, dams, canals.  Cuneiform writing to preserve and increase knowledge, governmental system built around ensi).  And I'm sure you're all saying, "Yes.  I see how the Sumerians provided P.S., but how, how, did they provide e.g. and e.f.?  I've been wondering about that all weekend.  I could hardly wait to get back into class and find out.  Tell us, tell us, O glorious professor.  How did the Sumerians provide e.g. and e.f to their society?  O.k.--I'll tell you.

 As I mentioned last time, a very important source of e.g. to Sumerians was written law.  (See syllabus).

 Sumer doing pretty well--laws in some ways better than our own.  Allow a business-like society with property rights protected, but also do pretty well with family law.  Still, you don't want to be running off to the law courts all the time--one would hope people could be convinced to do the right thing without legal compulsion.  One of most effective ways is to use literature (cf. Maxims of Ptah Hotep in Egypt)--here, Sumerians also did quite well.  Many Sumerian proverbs, advice on how to get along well with others. (Cf. syllabus).

 Such proverbs an excellent source of ethical guidance--also emotional fulfillment: a guide to what's truly important in life.

 Sumerians had other sources of emotional fulfillment.

1.  Religion

 Like Egyptians, Sumerians polytheistic.  But Sumerians a bit less optimistic about gods.  An, Ki, Enlil, Shamesh--capricious, sometimes hostile.  (Understandable: natural forces around Egypt generally predictable and benificent.  Natural forces in Mesopotamia unpredictable--sometimes good, always necessary--but often destructive.)  Not surprising Sumerians didn't regard their gods as kindly.  Sumerians somewhat pessimistic: after-life: eat dust, drink dirty water.)

 So, how could such a religion help provide emotional fulfillment?  Lot's of ways.  One: explanation of meaning purpose of life.  Sumerians a complex mythology help them understand the world and their place in it.  (An, Ki, Enlil--man created from dust of ground to serve gods.  That's why life is so hard!  But also meaningful.  Each city-state associated itself with one of gods, built a huge ziggurat--source of pride.

 Also, Sumerians had hundreds of religious rituals designed to please the gods.  Did this do any good?  Well, at least it made them feel they can do something.  (Just like CPR!)  Sumerian rituals helped them with big issues of life--things like death.  Of all arbitrary events, death is worst.  Sumerians learned to get control over death!  With sacrifices!

 Some of you say--well, not very emotionally fulfilling.  But Sumer other sources of emotional fulfillment.  Civilized Sumerians wealthier than barbarians who surrounded them--beautiful works of art, music--some pride in this.  And if all this wasn't enough--Sumerians had beer.
 Pretty good?  Yes, but, just like Egypt, some potential problems.  One: natural disaster and barbarian invasion.  But these pretty well dealt with.  More a problem, war between city states.  This Sumerians dealt with by a change of government.  Ensi gave way to lugal.  But this a problem: lugal might protect you, but greedy for more might ultimately make conflicts worse.  Eventual solution something like that reached earlier in Egypt--Unity.  One of lugals (Sargon of Akkad) c. 2300 strong enough to defeat all the others.  Becomes the first empire builder known to history.  Sargon's reign a real blessing: trade improves, warfare ended.  Story similar to Egypt and rise of Pharaoh's, but with a different ending.  Sargon's successors were not primarily concerned with welfare of people--become tyrants.  This provoked rebellion--and made Sumer vulnerable to invasion.  Sumerian period lasted about 300 more years, but no ruler able to establish lasting empire--until Sumerians were invaded by a new people, Amorites or Babylonians.

 Amorites, like Hyksos, a people very similar to patriarchs you read about in Bible, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob.  Shepherds wandering with flocks.  Around 2000 B.C., these Amorites began moving into Mesopotamia and taking over.  But the Amorites did not destroy Sumerian civilization.  They adopted many of its characteristics for themselves--and even made improvements on what the Sumerians had been doing.  This lead to the next stage of Mesopotamian civilization, the Babylonian phase.  Why called that and not Amorite?  Name taken from great capital city Babylon.

 Babylonian civilization off to a good start.  As I say, preserved good things from Sumer.  Engineering techniques enabled Sumerians to control rivers, cuneiform writing that enabled them to preserve and pass on knowledge.  But Babylon improved on Sumer in lots of ways.

1.  Better governed.  Instead of waring city states and unstable empires, Babylon, led by Hammurabi, created a strong, stable empire, probably the largest empire the world had yet seen.  Empire excellent for trade--Babylonians preserved and adapted business-like ways of Sumerians.  Reflected in Babylonina laws.

2.  Law another area in which Babylon surpassed Sumer.  (Cf. syllabus, code of Hammurabi).  Not necessarily better laws, but because covered a larger area and same for a long time, more effective.

3.  Babylonians surpassed Sumerians in other ways, e.g. math and science.  (Quadratic equations, tablets of Amisaduga).

4.  Babylonians also made improvements on Sumerian religion.  Basically same gods, but a variation of creation story.  (Marduk vs. Tiamat and Kingu.)  Marduk a great champion of order over chaos--but note something else: recognition that evil comes from our own nature.  Important!

5.  But perhaps greatest way Babylonians surpass Sumerians is in literature.  Epic of Gilgamesh, based on Sumerian stories.  The real Gilgamesh was a Sumerian king.  But the Babylonian epic far surpasses anything written by the Sumerians--at least, it surpasses those Sumerian works we know about.

 --epic poem: poem that tells a story
 --what poetic techniques used? (forshadowing, repetition)
 --why are people of Uruk upset at beginning of poem?
 --what recouse to people have?
 --what is god's response?

 --Enkidu caught by trapper.  What's bait?
 --Why do animals reject Enkidu?  What's message?

 --Gilgamesh and Enkidu fight--then become friends.  Message?

 --Gilgamesh and Enkidu go on adventure--capture Humbaba.
 --Choice has to be made.  Which is right?
 --Babylonians ever in similar situation?
 --What guidance does Epic provide?

 --Ishtar falls in love with Gilgamesh.  His response?
 --How does Ishtar respond?
 
 --Bull of Heaven killed.  Now what happens?
 --How does Enkidu react to message of his death?
 --What consolation does Shamesh offer (p. 90)

 This gets to heart of poem: how do you handle death?  Gilgamesh goes in search of plant of youth/life.  Finally meets Utnapishtim.  Finds answer: gets plant, and snake eats it.  Sound familiar?  Message: struggle as much as you like, but death comes in the end.  Any more consolation than that given Enkidu?  Well, perhaps.  Look at end of story (p. 117)

 --wisdom
 --tale of days before flood (knowledge)
 --work of your hands
 --hope that the story would live

 But notice also ending of story: same words as at the beginning, but very different in impact after all that has gone before.

 Now all this would make you think Babylon doing an excellent job providing p.s. e.g. and e.f.--pretty much true.  But around 1550, Babylon went into a period of stagnation.  A group of foreign invaders, the Kassites, took over the administration of the empire.  Didn't make any changes, but no advances either.

 But changes did come around 1000 B.C. when a new people began to dominate Mesopotamis, the Assyrians.

 Assyrian phase third great phase of Mesopotamian history.  Assyria in North Mesopotamia, had been an important center of Mesop. civ. a long time before 1000 B.C.--but not until then they began to dominate.  Prior to that time, Assyria usually on the short end of things.   Very vulnerable to invasion: Horites, Mittani, Hittites, Moshku, Aramaeans.  Because of this, Assyrians had to develop a warlike civilization simply in order to survive.  In Assyria, we see a society almost totally dedicated to warfare.

--technology
--sciences: medicine, astronomy
--religion: Asshur a war god

 Devoting selves to war, enabled Assyrians to conquer large area, but holding it was difficult, and Assyrians ended up resorting to terror.  (Cf. p. 27 of western tradition).

--Assyrian art also dominated by such depiction--hunting scenes/war scenes.
--Assyrian law likewise (cf. syllabus)

 Now all of this makes you think Assyria a strong empire.  And they were a powerful people--but a cruel society always has problems--and Assyria constantly facing revolts and rebellion.  And when they were finally weak--enemies hated them so much destroyed them utterly.  (Scythians, Medes, Chaldaeans).  Alexander couldn't find Assyria!

 The fall of Assyria brought in the last great phase of Mesop. civilization, the Chaldaean (or Neo Babylonian) phase.  Chaldaeans were part of coalition that had destroyed Assyria, and soon Chaldaean ruler, Nebuchadnezzar, controlled an empire almost as large as that of the Assyrians.  But Nebuchadnezzar more than a conqueror.  Great dream: to restore Babylonian greatness.  Made Babylon his capital, building splendid walls around city.  He attempted to go back to pre-Assyrian ways, ways of Hammurabi.  In religion, back to Marduk--splendid new Zigguart.  In law, restored Hammurabi code rather than cruel Assyrian laws.  Beautified capital: hanging gardens.  All this to try to restore a measure of confidence.

 To some extent, it worked.  Chaldaean empire wealthy, powerful--probably more powerful than Babylon of Hammurabi--certainly wealthier, probably richest society of face of earth.  But Nebuchadnezzar's great attempt failed after a very brief time. (612-539)  Why?

 Long years of warfare Assyrian dominance had changed Mesopotamina character.  Pessimistic from beginning, even more pessimistic.

 --Astral religion and its effects, moral decay.
 How far had morals collapsed?  One good measure is treatment of women.  (Herodotus prostitute story).  True?  Did all women have to be prostitutes?  No--but Herodotus was right: many prostitutes.  An indication that women no longer being cared for--no other alternative.  But possible even clearer, story of how Chaldaean empire fell.

 --Attack by Persia: no defense. Belshazzar having a party.  No blow struck.

 But it gets worse!  Chaldeans decided to rebel.  Babylon beseiged.  How to solve food shortage.  Kill women.  Not surprising this civilization wasn't going any further.