Greek and Roman Theatre

1. How did religious ritual evolve into Greek theatre?

6. What was a dithyramb?

The dithyramb was a lengthy "hymn" or choral ode in honor of Dionysus which was sung by a chorus of fifty men.

     How did it evolve into drama?

Aristotle, in the Poetics, tells us that one of the choral leaders, Thespis (6th Century, BCE), left the chorus, jumped on to the alter, and assumed the role of "the god".

7. Who was the first actor?

Thespis.

     The first playwright?

Also, Thespis. He won the first Greek tragedy contest in 534 BCE.

8. What type of dramas did Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides write?

Tragedies.

9. Which of these three was the first playwright whose work has survived?

16. What is a trilogy?

A trilogy is a set of three short plays tied together by a common plot line, character, or idea. Each tragic playwright, when he entered the competition for performance at the City Dionysia, would submit four plays, a trilogy (3 tragedies) and a satyr play. Aeschylus, the earliest of the three tragic playwrights, built his trilogies around a common plot line. Euripides, the last of the three, usually built his three plays around a common idea. Only one complete trilogy has survived: Aeschylus' Oresteia ("Agamemnon," "Libation Bearers," and "Eumenides") The satyr play is generally believed to have been a comic treatment of the serious material covered in the tragedies. Only one satyr play, The Cyclops by Euripides, has survived.

17. Which structural pattern was used by the three Greek tragic playwrights: Climactic or Episodic?

Climactic.

18. What was the major difference between Old and New Greek Comedy?

Old Comedy was written before 400 BCE, New Comedy was written after 400 BCE. Old Comedy was mostly political satire. New Comedy dealt with domestic affairs: Boy meets girl, boy loses girl, boy get's girl back again. New Greek Comedy is the beginning of the "SitCom." The reason for the change is that the new political rulers -- the Macedonians who united the independent City States under the leadership of King Philip II (382-336 BCE) and his son: Alexander the Great (356-323 BCE) -- would no longer accept criticism, hence playwright's stopped writing political satire.

19. Who is the only Old Greek Comedy playwright whose work has survived?

Aristophanes (ca. 448 - ca. 380 BCE)

20. What type of comedies did he write?

Political satire, high comedy

21. What is the title of one of his major works?

He is best remembered for the four plays titled after the chorus: the The Clouds (423 BCE), The Wasps (422 BCE), The Birds (414 BCE), and The Frogs (405 BCE). Probably his most often revived script is Lysistrata (411 BCE), the story of the women of Athens and Sparta who bring an end to the long war between these two city states through a sex strike.

22. How many New Greek Comedy scripts have survived?

One. The Grouch, also known as The Grumbler (316 BCE), found in 1959. In contrast, we have eleven (of the approximately forty) Old Greek Comedies by Aristophanes.

    Who was its author?

Menander (ca. 342 - 292 BCE)

23. Which structural pattern was used by Greek comic playwrights: Climactic or Episodic?

Episodic.

24. At which dramatic festival were comedies performed?

Although one day of the City Dionysia was alotted for the performance of five comedies, the Dionysian festival at which comedies were the feature was the Lenaia.

25. In which city, and during which season did this festival occur?

In Athens, during the winter (January).

The Fifth Century Greek Theatre The theatre of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and Aristophanes, was a temporary wooden structure built for the festival (the City Dionysia) and dismantled when the celebration was concluded. The audience probably sat on wooden benches (theatron) and the actors and chorus performed on a flat, roughly circular (85' diameter) dirt floored acting area (orchestra). The skene, a tent or small wooden hut was probably added in the middle of the fifth century. The first permanent theatre was built under Macedonian rule in the middle of the fourth century BCE.

Ground Plan of a Greek Theatre To the left is the ground plan of a typical Greek Theatre as published by William Smith in A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1875). The drawing reflects a 19th century understanding based on an examination of the ruins of a fourth century BCE theatre as remodeled by the Romans during the first century BCE.. Note the circular orchestra with its alter (thymele), the theatron which enfolds approximately 60% of the central playing area, and the skene -- with its three "doors" -- which just touches the edge of the orchestra. Note the differences between this plan and the drawing on page 241.

Theatre of Dionysus, Athens To the left is a view of the ruins of the Theatre of Dionysus, the fifth century home of the tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and the comedies of Aristophanes. This permanent Greek theatre was built between 342 and 326 BCE (approximately 100 years after Oedipus was first performed); remodeled to fit the Roman ideal during the reign of Nero (61 BCE), and last used for a theatrical performance during the 4th century CE. This historical site was discovered during the 18th century and excavated during the 19th. Note the orchestra (as altered by Romans), the remains of the theatron and the footings of the skene.

26. In the classical Greek theatre, what was the theatron?

The theatron was the semi-circular seating area in the classical Greek theatre. It was generally (but not always) carved out of the side of a hill. It is the source of our word: theatre. Rough English translation: Seeing place.

    The orchestra?

Was the circular acting area at the foot of the hill, where the chorus (and actors) performed. It was located between the theatron and the skene. In the center of the orchestra was an alter (or thymele). Rough English translation: Dancing place.

    The skene?

The skene, the source of our word: scene, was the palace (or scene house) at the rear of the acting space. It was introduced in the middle of the fifth century BCE and probably did not exist for Aeschylus' early tragedies. It had at least one, and perhaps as many as three openings (doors?) which could be used as entrances. Rough English translation: Tent or booth. See the diagram on page 241.

27. What was the seating capacity of a typical Greek theatre?

During the 4th century BCE, when the temporary wooden benches were replaced with stone slabs, the 78 rows of the Theatre of Dionysus would seat between 15,000 and 16,000 people -- approximately one third the population of Athens. In contrast, a large Broadway theatre, designed primarily for musicals, seats about 1,200.

28. What was the mechane (machina)?

A crane mounted on the roof of the skene. See the diagram on the bottom of page 241.

    How was it used?

It was used to lower the gods into the action of the play. Hence the term deus ex machina-- God out of the machine.

29. How many actors were used in a Greek tragedy?

Two in the plays of Aeschylus, three in the works of both Sophocles and Euripides.

    In Greek comedy?

There was no limit. Aristophanes Lysistrata has a cast of eleven: seven men and four women plus five choruses: Young women, old women, old men, Athenian men and Spartan men.

30. Did women perform on the Greek stage?

No.

31. What was the social rank of a Greek actor?

Acting in the Greek culture was considered an acceptable profession. As we move through theatre history, we will discover the social rank of the performer will vary from accepted to rejected.

32. What was the function of the chorus in a Greek drama?

1. They were a character in the play, usually the townspeople. This character was sympathetic to the protagonist.
2. They presented the writer's point of view.
3. They were the ideal spectator, their reaction to a scene would cue the audience on how they should react.
4. They broke the drama into dramatic scenes (or episodes), each scene was separated from the next by a choral interlude (or ode).

33. Who was the major critic of Greek drama?

Aristotle.

    When did he live?

384 to 322 BCE. He wrote about 100 years after Sophocles major tragedies were produced.

    What is his most significant work?

The Poetics, the source of the six elements of dramatic structure.

34. Who were the two Roman comic playwrights whose works have survived?

Although both tragedies and comedies were written during the period of the Republic (500-27 BCE), the work of only two comedy playwrights has survived -- Titus Plautus (254 to 184 BCE) and Terence (185 to 159 BCE). Plautus is remembered for his farcical comedies. We have 21 of the more than 100 plays he may have written. On the other hand, Terence's six plays, because of their simple style and high moral tone, were used as the literary models by the colleges and universities of the Renaissance.

35. What was the "source" of Plautus' comic plots and characters?

Most of his plays were based on New Greek Comedy.

36. What is Plautus' most often produced play?

The Menaechmi, also known as the Twin Menaechmi, or simply The Twins. It is the story of twin brothers who are separated at birth. One travels with his father to Syracuse, the other with his mother to Epidemus. After his twenty first birthday, the Syracuse boy sets out in search of his long lost brother. They finally meet after two hours of misunderstandings and mistaken identity.

37. How did he influence later comedy writers such as Shakespeare and Moliere?

Shakespeare and Moliere "borrowed" plots and characters from Plautus' comedies. Shakespeare's The Comedy of Errors is based on The Menaechmi and Moliere adapted Plautus' Pot of Gold into The Miser.

38. List seven stock characters Plautus used in his comedies .

1. An old man, probably a miser.
2. A young man, possibly the miser's son, who rebels against authority.
3. Usually a pair of slaves. One smart, the other less smart. The two slaves are the source of most of the humor.
4. The parasite. The eternal brother in law, he comes for a visit, and stays forever.
5. The courtesan. The live in maid who knows how to "put out."
6. The slave dealer. Often trades in women. Today we would call him a pimp.
7. Miles Gloriosus, the braggart soldier. He talks a mighty battle, but runs at the first sign of conflict.

39. What is the setting of a typical Roman comedy?

On a street in front of three houses.

40. Who was the major tragic playwright of the Roman theatre?

Lucius Seneca (ca. 5 BCE - 65 CE), a tutor and advisor to Nero (37-68 CE), was the major playwright of the Empire (27 BCE - 476 CE). Nine of his tragedies have survived.

41. On which Greek author were his plays based?

Primarily Euripides, but he also "borrowed" from Aeschylus and Sophocles.

42. Were his plays ever produced?

No. At least we don't think so. His works may have been declaimed, that is-- recited to an audience, but were probably not staged with realistic effects.

43. Why is he important to the study of dramatic literature?

Because Renaissance (1550 to 1700) playwrights used his tragedies as their primary model.

44. List six major characteristics of his dramas.

1. He divided his plays into five acts with choral interludes. The interludes were not part of the play's action.
2. He used elaborate rhetorical speeches. His characters debated, they didn't converse.
3. He was a moral philosopher. He believed that drama should preach a moral lesson.
4. His tragedies involved much violent action. They were filled with murder, torture, dismemberment...
5. His tragedies respected the unity of time (plays action unfolds within 24 hours) and place (the plays actions unfolds at one location).
6. Each of his characters was dominated by one passion (love, revenge, ambition, etc.) which brought about their downfall.

45. What is the difference between a soliloquy and an aside?

In a soliloquy, a character, on an empty stage, speaks directly to the audience. In an aside, a character also speaks to the audience, but the other characters on stage, because of the "magic of theatre," do not hear him. Probably the most famous soliloquy from dramatic literature is the "To be or not to be..." speech from Shakespeare's Hamlet.

46. What is the function of the confidant?

To listen to and advise another, usually more important, character.

47. Who was the "Roman Aristotle?"

Horace (65 to 8 BCE). In his Ars poetica (The Art of Poetry) (19 BCE) he argued that comedy and tragedy should be distinct forms; that tragedy should draw its characters from the noble class while comedies should deal with the middle class; and that the function of drama was not only to entertain but to teach a moral lesson. These ideas will be incorporated into the NeoClassical Rules during the Renaissance.

Ground Plan of a Roman Theatre To the left is the ground plan of a typical Roman Theatre as published by William Smith in A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1875). Note the semi-circular orchestra and cavea, the narrow stage (pulpitum), the scena frons with 18 columns and five openings, and the arcade which surrounded the cavea. Smith suggests that two of the five openings contained periaktoi, the three sided rotating prism that the Greeks may have used to indicate a change in location. Also note that there are no entrances into either the orchestra or the cavea. Compare this plan with the photograph of Teatro Romano di Volterra below.

Teatro Romano di Volterra Roman Theatre of Volterra. To the left are the ruins of one of the better preserved Roman theatres. Note the three sections of the semi-circular cavea and orchestra, the footings for the narrow stage (pulpitum), and the remains (including seven white columns) of the two story scena frons. This structure, unlike Teatro Marcello, was carved out of the very rocky hillside. For obvious safety reasons, only a small portion of this excavation (or scavi) is open to the public.

48. How did the Romans change the basic structure of the Greek theatre?

They cut the orchestra in half, from a circle (in Greek times) to a semi-circle. They also cut the seating down to a semi-circle, and added a narrow stage which was attached to the flat part of the orchestra. See the photograph on page 247 and the diagram on page 251.

49. How did they use the orchestra?

The orchestra was primarily used as a seating area.

50. Was there a stage, as we know it today, in the Roman theatre?

Yes, the stage was probably between 60 and 100 feet long and about 20 feet deep.

51. How many entrances were in the Roman scaena?

Five. There were three entrances along the back (upstage) wall, and one on each side wall. The three rear entrances usually represented three houses, the two side entrances were to different parts of the town.

52. What was placed behind each of these entrances?

We don't know. When Renaissance architect's began to re-create small Roman theatres in the late 1500's, they built perspective vistas of Roman streets behind each of the entrances. The entrances became ornate arches framing the street scenes behind.

53. What was the seating capacity of an average Roman theatre?

The seating capacity of Rome's Teatro Marcello, the largest theatre in the Roman Empire, was approximately 12,000. The cavea (the semi-circular bank of seats) would hold another 2,000 standees, bringing the total to about 14,000. The theatre was begun in 46 BCE under the reign of Julius Caesar and dedicated to Claudius Marcello by Augustus Caesar between 13 and 11 BCE. The outside diameter of the cavea was about 425 feet. The theatre, which still exists, became a fortress during the middle ages, the Pallazo Savelli [designed by architect Baldassare Peruzzi (1481-1537)] during the Renaissance, and is presently an upscale apartment complex. Obviously the remains of this theatre are not open to the public.

54. Was the theatre structure enclosed, or unified?

Enclosed. Although the theatre was an open air structure, it was architectually enclosed or unified.

55. Were the Roman theatres carved out of a hillside, or built on level ground?

In rugged country Roman architects, like their Greek predecessors, carved their theatres out of the hillside. On flat land the cavea was typically supported by two or more tiers of Roman arches.

56. What is the difference between a Roman theatre and a Roman amphitheatre?

Anfiteatro di Flavio

A Roman theatre has a stage (pulpitum) on one side of the orchestra and the audience (cavea) on the other. An amphitheatre has the audience completely surrounding the "stage space." They were huge arenas used primarily for sporting events -- gladitorial combat, mock sea battles (naumachia) and wild animal hunts. The largest (Seating capacity: 87,000 - Outside dimensions: 620' by 513') and most famous amphitheatre in the Empire was Rome's Anfiteatro di Flavio (Amphitheatre of Flavius) which was completed in 80 CE and is more commonly known as the Colosseo (Colosseum). See the photograph on page 245.

57. What were the three major forces which led to the downfall of the Roman theatre?

1. The decay of the empire began when Constantine I (Emperor: 306-337 CE) established two capitals in 330 CE and moved the court from Rome (the western capital in central Italy) to Byzantium which he renamed Constantinople, (now known as Istanbul), the eastern capital in what is now Turkey. Rome (and the Western Empire) fell in 476 when the western emperor was unseated by Odoacer, a Germanic barbarian. The Eastern Empire (which included most of Greece) lasted another 977 years, finally falling to the Ottoman Empire (Turks) in 1453.
2. The barbarians who came down from the north (France and Germany) and plundered the cities of the western empire. The people scattered, buildings were abandoned, and soon there were no large centers of culture in what had been the mighty Roman Empire. The population of the city of Rome dropped from approximately four million at the height of the Empire to under twenty six thousand in the fifth century.
3. The hostility of the Christian church. The theatre was considered the shrine of Venus (a Roman god). By the fifth century (the 400s) actors were excommunicated. This ruling held in parts of Europe until the 18th century.

58. In what century was the last Roman performance given?

The sixth century. 533 CE, 1066 years after Thespis won the first Greek Tragedy Contest.